American TESOL Institute: Glossary
Comprehensive definitions for professional English language teachers.
A
Academic calendar
A calendar used by schools dividing the months of the year into periods when courses are offered and the periods of vacation. Schools' Academic Calendars vary greatly due to the length of courses and frequency of enrollment.
Academic communicative competence
Ability to use language to communicate academic knowledge and reach one's potential academically within the context of formal schooling.
Academic language
Language used in the learning of academic subject matter in formal schooling context; aspects of language strongly associated with literacy and academic achievement.
Academic language proficiency
Ability in language skills needed for mastering academic material; pertains to both written and oral language.
Academic year
Period of nine months when schools offer classes. In America and the U.K., this begins in September and ends in May or June. In Australia/New Zealand, it begins in February and ends in October.
Acceptable
Acceptable English is English that the hearer can understand and which does not cause offense. It doesn't necessarily mean "perfectly accurate."
Achieving aims
When a teacher succeeds in teaching what he/she has planned to teach.
Accent
Can mean word stress or the pronunciation used by specific speakers (regional or class accents). Features of pronunciation that indicate regional or social identity.
Accreditation
Formal procedures giving students certification after completion of studies, e.g. a certificate, a diploma, or a degree.
Acculturation
The process of adapting to a new culture. Involves understanding different systems of thought, beliefs, and communication systems.
Accuracy order
The relative accuracy of grammatical forms in learner language at different stages of development.
Achievable target, goal
An aim that is not too difficult for the learner to reach.
Acquisition
Language absorbed without conscious effort (like children picking up a mother tongue). Contrasted with formal "learning."
Acquisition device
Nativist theory (Chomsky) claiming each learner has an innate device containing universal grammar info.
Action learning set
Cooperative activity where small groups work to identify action for a real-world problem.
Action plan
Specific proposal to address problems or meet a desired goal.
Action research
Methodology where teachers investigate an activity to produce positive improvements in student learning.
Activation of prior knowledge
Constructivist strategy helping students access existing knowledge to develop new meanings.
Active control
When students can actually use a structure or vocabulary point effectively in communication.
Active learning method
Methods ensuring learners play an active role instead of passively receiving info.
Active vocabulary
Words and phrases a learner is able to use in speech and writing.
Activity based learning
Learning by doing; rules are looked at after the activity or not at all.
Adapt
To change text or material to make it suitable for a specific class.
Adaptation
Process of achieving equilibrium between new experience and what is already known.
Additive bilingualism
Developing L2 proficiency without loss of the primary language (L1).
Adult learning
Formal education geared to individuals typically over 18.
Advance organizer
Concepts given prior to a lesson to provide a stable cognitive structure for new learning.
Advanced
A level where the learner masters most structures and functions, usually with 3000+ words.
Advisor
School employee assisting students with personal or academic objectives.
Aesthetic response
Affective or emotional response based on background knowledge and attitudes.
Affective
Relating to emotional, non-cognitive aspects of learning.
Affective domain
Area of learning including feelings, attitudes, and values.
Affective filter
Krashen's concept: mental block caused by high anxiety or low motivation that prevents input from reaching the brain.
Affix
Syllable added to beginning (prefix) or end (suffix) of a word to modify meaning.
Aids to teaching
Visual (board, realia) and Electronic (TV, computer, language lab) tools used in class.
Aims
Lesson aims (language goals) and personal aims (teacher self-improvement goals).
Alternative Assessment
Sources differing from objective tests: portfolios, performance tasks, checklists.
Aligning instruction with assessment
Matching teaching format with evaluation format (e.g., hands-on lesson = hands-on test).
Anecdotal records
Dated notes recorded by a teacher while observing ESL students.
Anthology
Collection of published works by one or more authors.
Antonym
A word that means the opposite of another.
Applied linguistics
Study of relationship between theory and practice, mostly in language teaching and translation.
Appraisal
Formalized evaluation of progress and performance.
Appropriate ESL services
Services for ESL students who cannot meet standard outcomes (pull-out, reception class).
Aptitude
Specific ability for learning a second language, distinct from general intelligence.
Aptitude test
Standardized test designed to assess potential for acquiring skills.
Aptitude treatment interaction
Relationship between individual differences and teaching strategies.
Arouse
To make students interested in a task.
Assimilation
Interpreting new perceptions to make them consistent with existing cognitive structures.
Assessment
Process of documenting knowledge, skills, and attitudes in measurable terms.
Assessment criteria
Qualities against which performance is judged (accuracy, vocabulary, spelling).
Assignment return sheets
Forms used to provide written comments on student assignments.
Assessment standards
Guidelines for evaluating student performance and content attainment.
Assignment
Work completed outside of class (Homework).
Assumption
What teachers believe students already know or how they will behave in a lesson.
Attention span
Length of time a learner can concentrate on a single activity.
Attitudes
Beliefs about language learning, culture, and teachers that influence progress.
Audio lingual method (ALM)
Teaching method focusing on listening and speaking through drills and dialogues.
Auditory learner
Learns best through verbal lectures and talking things through.
Audio/visual discrimination
Learning to process auditory and visual input as intelligible words/objects.
Aural
Pertaining to the ear.
Aural comprehension
Understanding the spoken word.
Aural discrimination
Distinguishing between spoken sounds or phrases.
Authentic assessment
Evaluation in a context as close to the "real thing" as possible.
Authentic language
Natural language as used by native speakers, not contrived for teaching.
Authentic material
Unscripted materials (newspapers, TV) not created for the classroom.
Authentic task
Task replicating real-world language use (e.g., writing a complaint letter).
Authentic text
Text not written for teaching (novel, song, fairy tale).
Autonomous learning
Learning through individual volition, unconnected with formal programs.
B
Back chaining
Drilling where students repeat from the end of a sentence to the beginning.
Basic Interpersonal communication skills (BICS)
Language for face-to-face communication (Cummins). Usually acquired in 2 years.
Beginning literacy
Grouping strategies for teaching reading/writing to varied literacy levels.
Behaviorism
Theory that learning is based on stimulus-response and reinforcement (Skinner).
Behaviorist learning theory
Habit formation; environment is more important than internal mental factors.
Bibliography
Listing of works used or considered in preparing a work.
Biculturalism
Near native knowledge of and effective response to two cultures.
Bilingual
Possessing knowledge of two languages.
Bilingual dictionary
Provides equivalent words in two different languages.
Bilingual education
Teaching a second language while relying on the native language.
Bilingual glossary
Definitions of terms used in bilingual discussion.
Bilingual instruction
Schooling through the medium of two languages.
Bilingualism
Communicating effectively in two or more languages.
Blackboard blindness
Suddenly forgetting how to spell or explain a word when writing on the board.
Blended learning
Integrating e-learning with traditional face-to-face teaching.
Body language
Facial expressions and gestures used to express a message.
Bookmark websites
Marking websites for future reference on a computer.
Bottom–up approach
Teaching micro-skills (grammar, vocabulary) before global communication.
Brainstorming
Generating a wide variety of ideas without immediate judgment or criticism.
Brush up
To review or refresh one's memory.
Buffer event
Non-time-critical activity allowing session flexibility.
C
CALL
Computer Assisted Language Learning: using software and internet for learning.
Campus
Buildings and grounds owned by an institution.
Case study
In-depth study of one individual or situation over time.
Categorization
Grouping or classifying by specific characteristics.
CELTA
Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults.
CELTYL
Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners.
CerTEfIC
Specialist Certificate in Teaching English for Industry and Commerce.
CertTESOL
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (Trinity College London).
CertTEYL
Trinity Certificate in Teaching English to Young Learners.
Chaining
Organizing concepts into a sequence of logically connected steps.
Chant
Rhythmic speaking or singing of words, often with repetition.
Challenge
Low vs High challenge activities requiring varying levels of effort.
Cheating
Obtaining forbidden help during tests or homework.
Choral drill
When the whole class repeats a word or sentence together.
Choral reading
Unison reading where the whole class reads text aloud at the teacher's pace.
Chunk
Smallest unit of content used independently; dividing long text into meaningful sections.
Class exercise
Problems completed during regular class hours under supervision.
Class management
Setting up, monitoring, and following up on classroom activities and dynamics.
Class management techniques
Strategies for organizing an environment conducive to learning and controlling behavior.
Class participation
Active involvement in classroom discussions and problem-solving.
Closed pairs
Pair work where only the partners listen to each other.
Cloze / Cloze Procedure
Assessment where words are removed from text and students fill them in using context.
CLT
Communicative Language Teaching: emphasis on interaction as the goal of learning.
Cognate
Words from different languages related historically (e.g., bath/bad).
Cognition
Mental processes of knowing, perceiving, and understanding.
CALLA
Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach: capitalizing on existing skills.
CALP
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: abstract language needed for school (Cummins).
Cognitive domain
Area of learning involving thinking, logic, and problem solving.
Cognitive model learning
Theory that acquisition rests on developing mental cognitive structures.
Cognitive process
DEMANDS of an activity ranging from info retrieval to creative invention.
Cognitive style
Individual characteristics of cognitive processing.
Cognitivism
Theory that learning is a conscious, rational process (making mind maps).
Collaborative learning
Groups working simultaneously on a task, tackling complexities together.
Collocation
Words that regularly occur together (e.g., "tall person" vs "high person").
Communicative strategies
Mime or paraphrase used when the learner lacks specific L2 words.
Communicative approaches
Developing competence to use language accurately and effectively in social contexts.
Communicative competence
Ability to produce language correctly, idiomatically, and appropriately.
Communicative functions
Purposes for language: transmission of info, belonging, and individual feelings.
CLL
Communicative Language Learning: goal-based activities without teacher intervention.
Competence and performance
Knowledge of language (Competence) vs applying that knowledge (Performance).
Components of a lesson plan
Aims, procedure, timing, aids, interaction patterns, and anticipated problems.
Comprehension
Ability to construct meaning from spoken, written, or gestural communication.
Comprehensible input
Input adjusted to be meaningful (Krashen). A necessary condition for acquisition.
Comprehensible output
Language produced by the learner that is understood by others.
CASAS
Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System: a list of life-skill competencies.
Computer conferencing
Discussions connecting participants in different places through networks.
Concept checking
Asking questions to ensure students understand meaning (e.g., "Is he at the museum now?").
Concordances
List of authentic sentences showing how a specific word is used.
Conditional admission
Permission to enroll under condition of improving language skills first.
Consolidate
Returning to a point to understand and remember it more completely.
Constructivism
Theory that knowledge cannot be instructed, only constructed by the learner.
Content-based ESL
Integrating language and subject matter (math, history) instruction.
Content words
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs with full meaning. Contrasted with structure words.
Contextualization
Placing target language in a realistic setting to show meaning.
Continuous assessment
Ongoing evaluation where work during a course counts toward the final grade.
Contrastive analysis hypothesis
Claim that L2 errors result from differences between L1 and target language.
Controlled practice
Exercises where the pupil is not free to choose the answer (Practice stage of PPP).
Cooperative learning
Small groups where each student is responsible for part of a shared task.
Cornell notes
Systematic note-taking system to process and recall information.
Corpus
Database of real spoken/written language used for linguistic analysis.
Correction code
Symbols (e.g., P = punctuation) used to help students correct their own writing.
Course book
Textbook providing core materials (grammar, skills) for a course.
Creative thinking
Thought processes encouraging originality and elaboration of diverse ideas.
Credit
Unit awarded upon completion of a course for degree attainment.
Criterion referencing
Assessment based on predefined standards, not ranking against other students.
Critical thinking
Evaluating claims and assumptions without simply accepting them as facts.
Culture
Sum total of ways of life: norms, behavior, traditions, and artifacts.
Curriculum mapping
Process for organizing data on knowledge and skills related to a subject.
D
Deadline
Final date for submission of assignments.
Debating
Researching and arguing various positions on an issue.
Deductive learning
Students are taught rules first, then use them in activities.
Deep learning
Extracting principles and integrating them with previous knowledge.
Deep end strategy
New input provided within a complex context (e.g., reading a sports text with multiple tenses).
Defining vocabulary
Stable core glossary used to explain complex words (standard in dictionaries).
DELTA
Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults (UCLES).
Dependency grammar
Syntactic theory where structure is determined by the relation between a head and dependents.
Descriptors
Broad categories of behaviors students exhibit when meeting a standard.
Diagnostic test
Exam used to identify strengths/weaknesses to determine placement.
Dialect
Regional variety of language differing in grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation.
Dialogue drill
Mimicking teacher models to practice grammar and vocabulary in context.
Diction
Art of enunciating with clarity; choice of words in writing.
Diphthong
Two vowel sounds joined in one syllable (e.g., /oy/).
Direct method
Language taught purely through listening and speaking without translation.
Discourse
A contiguous stretch of language comprising more than one sentence.
Discovery learning
Teaching method where info is presented so students progress to new levels of understanding themselves.
Distance education
Education where instructor and student are separated by space/time.
Drilling
Intensive and repetitive practice (Choral, Individual, Substitution).
E
Early production
Natural Approach stage: one- or two-word responses from students.
Eco correct
Teacher repeats a mistake with rising intonation to elicit self-correction.
Eclectic approach
Combining techniques from several different approaches (functional, communicative, etc.).
E-learning
Learning activities based on electronic formats (Internet, CD-ROM).
Elicitation
Stimulation that draws forth a particular class of behaviors or answers.
Emergent syllabus
Learner's professional needs dictate the course objectives over time.
English language proficiency
Level of attainment in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Error analysis
Collecting learner language samples to identify and classify error causes.
Error correction
Teacher correction, Self-correction, or Peer correction.
ESL / ESOL
English as a Second Language / English for Speakers of Other Languages.
ESP
English for Specific Purposes (Business, Medicine, Law).
Evaluation
Assessing work to determine if it meets predetermined standards.
Experiential learning
Learning derived from direct experience and reflection (Kolb).
Extensive reading
Reading for pleasure or global understanding of longer texts.
F
Facilitator
Individual who guides the learning process without being the sole source of knowledge.
False beginners
Students with some basic understanding who cannot yet use the language well.
Feedback
Response learners get (correction, clarification) when communicating.
Fill-in exercises
Sentences with blanks for students to complete with appropriate words.
Fine motor skills
Control of small muscles (e.g., drawing shapes, writing).
Flashcards
Cards with words/pictures used to teach or reinforce ideas.
Fluency
Ability to read or converse accurately and quickly.
Formative assessment
Ongoing observations to identify strengths/weaknesses and guide future steps.
Fossilization
When a learner's rule system stops developing before reaching native competence.
Four skills approach
Equal emphasis on reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Frame dialogue
Short dialogue with substitutions used to practice specific functions.
Functional approach
Course organized by what the learner wants to DO (inviting, suggests, etc.).
G
Games
Implemented to relax the atmosphere and practice speaking.
Genre
Category of literary work characterized by style, form, or content.
Gesture
Non-verbal communication using parts of the body.
Gist
Central meaning or theme of a speech or text.
Graded language
Language adapted according to the student's level.
Grading rubric
Written explanation of how a task will be assessed.
Grammar translation
Traditional method focused on rules and translating between L1 and L2.
Grapheme
Smallest unit of a writing system (letter or combination representing a phoneme).
Graphic organizers
Visual maps used to illustrate and organize learning material.
H
Hand-eye coordination
Movements requiring visual input (e.g., learning to write).
Halo effect
Judging an individual based on a previously formed impression.
Heuristic learning
Discovery learning: rules students use when speaking L2.
Holistic evaluation
Overall judgment of quality without detailed analysis of specific errors.
Home language
Language(s) primarily spoken in the home.
I
Ice breaker
Introductory activity to help students get to know each other.
Idiom
Expression whose meaning cannot be derived from individual words (e.g., "kick the bucket").
Independent learning
Learning carried out by students outside the classroom sphere.
Inductive learning
Going from examples to the rule; discovery-based.
Information gap
Activity where partners have different info and must talk to complete a task.
Information transfer
Transforming info from one way (e.g., itinerary) to another (e.g., route on a map).
Input
The language students are exposed to in class (graded or ungraded).
Intonation
The ways in which voice pitch rises and falls in speech.
J
Jargon
Specialized or technical language of a specific group/discipline.
Jigsaw
Strategy where each person learns part of the whole and teaches others.
Journaling
Reflective writing about issues and experiences in a course.
K
Key questions
Questions to check understanding of meaning (e.g., "Where was he on Saturday?").
Key skills
Vital skills: literacy, numeracy, IT, teamwork, problem solving.
Kinesthetic
Learners who prefer physical response, movement, and hands-on activity.
L
L1 / L2
Mother tongue (L1) and Second or Target language (L2).
LAD
Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky).
Language laboratory
Room with booths and headphones for monitored listening practice.
Learner autonomy
Students taking responsibility for their own learning process.
Learning outcomes
Statements of what students should know and be able to do at the end of a lesson.
Lexical approach
Focus on word chunks and fixed phrases instead of grammar/vocabulary split.
M
Managed learning environments
Computer-based systems for organizing lessons and assessments.
Materials evaluation
Appraisal of the value of teaching materials relative to objectives.
Meta-cognition
Ability to reflect on one's own thinking and learning processes.
Micro teaching
Training technique where part of a lesson is taught to a small peer group.
Morpheme
Smallest unit of language that is grammatically significant.
Motivation
Intrinsic (internal) vs Extrinsic (external pressures) reasons for learning.
Multiple intelligences
Gardner's theory (8 types): Linguistic, Musical, Kinesthetic, etc.
N
Natural approach
Focus on meaningful communication and comprehensible input (Krashen).
NLP
Neurolinguistic Programming: teaching mirroring the student's inner world.
Nonverbal communication
Messages transmitted via intonation, pauses, gestures, and body language.
O
Objective test
Test scored based on an answer key without expert judgment (Multiple choice).
Online learning
Educational environment in cyberspace using communications tools.
Open-ended questions
Questions with a wide range of possible answers (e.g., "What do you do on weekends?").
Overgeneralization
Applying a rule to an inappropriate piece of language (e.g., "goodest").
P
Pace
Speed of the lesson varied to keep student attention.
Pedagogy
Theory and practice of teaching.
Phoneme
Smallest unit of sound that causes a change in meaning.
PPP
Presentation, Practice, Production: standard teaching sequence.
Productive skills
Speaking and writing: requiring language output.
Q
Qualitative assessment
Assessment based on personal views, experience, or opinion.
Quality assurance
Internal/external processes maintaining the quality of academic provision.
Quiz
Short test taken during class to determine understanding of current info.
R
Rapport
Positive, friendly relationship between the class and the teacher.
Rassias Method
Combination of dramatic techniques and rhythmic drills.
Receptive skills
Listening and reading: skills requiring the learner to make sense of input.
Role play
Fluency activity where students act out conversations in roles.
Rote learning
Memorization without situation or context to make meaning clear.
S
Scan
Reading text quickly to pick out specific information (e.g., headlines).
Schema theory
Readers interact with text using personal experience (schema) to construct meaning.
Silent period
Stage where beginners listen/read before being required to produce language.
Skimming
Reading for general content or gist of a text.
SLA
Second Language Acquisition: research/theory related to learning L2.
Summative assessment
End-of-course evaluation to judge quality of knowledge as a final product.
Syntax
Grammatical arrangement of words in sentences.
T
Target language
The language a learner is attempting to acquire.
Task-based learning (TBL)
Approach concentrating on carrying out tasks (puzzles, projects) rather than graded grammar.
TEFL
Teaching English as a Foreign Language.
TESOL
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.
TPR
Total Physical Response: students respond physically to instructions (Asher).
Transfer
L1 knowledge used to help L2 learning (Positive or Negative/Interference).
U
Unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.